Voltaire (1694-1778)

François-Marie Arouet; 21 November 1694 - 30 May 1778), known by his nom de plume Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and separation of church and state.

Voltaire was a versatile and prolific writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken advocate of civil liberties, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma, and the French institutions of his day.

Biography

François-Marie Arouet was born in Paris, the youngest of the five children of François Arouet (19 August 1649 - 1 January 1722), a lawyer who was a minor treasury official, and his wife, Marie Marguerite Daumard (c. 1660 - 13 July 1701), whose family was on the lowest rank of the French nobility. Some speculation surrounds Voltaire's date of birth, because he claimed he was born on 20 February 1694 as the illegitimate son of a nobleman, Guérin de Rochebrune or Roquebrune. Two of his older brothers-Armand-François and Robert-died in infancy and his surviving brother, Armand, and sister Marguerite-Catherine were nine and seven years older, respectively. Nicknamed 'Zozo' by his family, Voltaire was baptized on 22 November 1694, with François de Castagnère, abbé de Châteauneuf (fr), and Marie Daumard, the wife of his mother's cousin, standing as godparents. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Collège Louis-le-Grand (1704-1711), where he was taught Latin, theology, and rhetoric; later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish, and English.

By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, who wanted him to become a lawyer. Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as an assistant to a notary, spent much of his time writing poetry. When his father found out, he sent Voltaire to study law, this time in Caen, Normandy. Nevertheless, he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies. Voltaire's wit made him popular among some of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. In 1713, his father obtained a job for him as a secretary to the new French ambassador in the Netherlands, the marquis de Châteauneuf (fr), the brother of Voltaire's godfather. At The Hague, Voltaire fell in love with a French Protestant refugee named Catherine Olympe Dunoyer (known as 'Pimpette'). Their scandalous affair was discovered by de Châteauneuf and Voltaire was forced to return to France by the end of the year.

Most of Voltaire's early life revolved around Paris. From early on, Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for critiques of the government. These activities were to result in two imprisonments and a temporary exile to England. One satirical verse, in which Voltaire accused the Régent of incest with his own daughter, led to an eleven-month imprisonment in the Bastille. The Comédie-Française had agreed in January 1717 to stage his debut play, Œdipe, and it opened in mid-November 1718, seven months after his release. Its immediate critical and financial success established his reputation.[15] Both the Régent and King George I of Great Britain presented Voltaire with medals as a mark of their appreciation.

He mainly argued for religious tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristo-monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects people's rights.

Voltaire was imprisoned in the Bastille from 16 May 1717
to 15 April 1718 in a windowless cell with ten-foot thick walls

Adopts the name "Voltaire"

The author adopted the name "Voltaire" in 1718, following his incarceration at the Bastille. Its origin is unclear. It is an anagram of AROVET LI, the Latinized spelling of his surname, Arouet, and the initial letters of le jeune ("the young"). According to a family tradition among the descendants of his sister, he was known as le petit volontaire ("determined little thing") as a child, and he resurrected a variant of the name in his adult life. The name also reverses the syllables of Airvault, his family's home town in the Poitou region.

Richard Holmes supports the anagrammatic derivation of the name, but adds that a writer such as Voltaire would have intended it to also convey its connotations of speed and daring. These come from associations with words such as voltige (acrobatics on a trapeze or horse), volte-face (a spinning about to face one's enemies), and volatile (originally, any winged creature). "Arouet" was not a noble name fit for his growing reputation, especially given that name's resonance with à rouer ("to be beaten up") and roué (a débauché).

In a letter to Jean-Baptiste Rousseau in March 1719, Voltaire concludes by asking that, if Rousseau wishes to send him a return letter, he do so by addressing it to Monsieur de Voltaire. A postscript explains: "J'ai été si malheureux sous le nom d'Arouet que j'en ai pris un autre surtout pour n'être plus confondu avec le poète Roi", (I was so unhappy under the name of Arouet that I have taken another, primarily so as to cease to be confused with the poet Roi.) This probably refers to Adenes le Roi, and the 'oi' diphthong was then pronounced like modern 'ouai', so the similarity to 'Arouet' is clear, and thus, it could well have been part of his rationale. Indeed, Voltaire is known also to have used at least 178 separate pen names during his lifetime.

La Henriade and Mariamne

Voltaire's next play, Artémire (de), set in ancient Macedonia, opened on 15 February 1720. It was a flop and only fragments of the text survive. He instead turned to an epic poem about Henri IV of France that he had begun in early 1717. Denied a licence to publish, in August 1722 Voltaire headed north to find a publisher outside France. On the journey, he was accompanied by his mistress, Marie-Marguerite de Rupelmonde, a young widow.

At Brussels, Voltaire and Rousseau met up for a few days, before Voltaire and his mistress continued northwards. A publisher was eventually secured in The Hague. In the Netherlands, Voltaire was struck and impressed by the openness and tolerance of Dutch society. On his return to France, he secured a second publisher in Rouen, who agreed to publish La Henriade clandestinely. After Voltaire's recovery from a month-long smallpox infection in November 1723, the first copies were smuggled into Paris and distributed. While the poem was an instant success, Voltaire's new play, Mariamne, was a failure when it first opened in March 1724. Heavily reworked, it opened at the Comédie-Française in April 1725 to a much-improved reception. It was among the entertainments provided at the wedding of Louis XV and Marie Leszczyńska in September 1725.

Great Britain

In early 1726, a young French nobleman, the chevalier de Rohan-Chabot, taunted Voltaire about his change of name, and Voltaire retorted that his name would be honoured while de Rohan would dishonour his. Infuriated, de Rohan arranged for Voltaire to be beaten up by thugs a few days later. Seeking compensation, redress, or revenge, Voltaire challenged de Rohan to a duel, but the aristocratic de Rohan family arranged for Voltaire to be arrested and imprisoned in the Bastille on 17 April 1726 without a trial or an opportunity to defend himself. Fearing an indefinite prison sentence, Voltaire suggested that he be exiled to England as an alternative punishment, which the French authorities accepted. On 2 May, he was escorted from the Bastille to Calais, where he was to embark for Britain.

In England, Voltaire lived largely in Wandsworth, with acquaintances including Everard Fawkener. From December 1727 to June 1728 he lodged at Maiden Lane, Covent Garden, now commemorated by a plaque, to be nearer to his British publisher. Voltaire circulated throughout English high society, meeting Alexander Pope, John Gay, Jonathan Swift, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough, and many other members of the nobility and royalty. Voltaire's exile in Great Britain greatly influenced his thinking. He was intrigued by Britain's constitutional monarchy in contrast to French absolutism, and by the country's greater support of the freedoms of speech and religion. He was influenced by the writers of the age, and developed an interest in earlier English literature, especially the works of Shakespeare, still relatively unknown in continental Europe. Despite pointing out his deviations from neoclassical standards, Voltaire saw Shakespeare as an example that French writers might emulate, since French drama, despite being more polished, lacked on-stage action. Later, however, as Shakespeare's influence began growing in France, Voltaire tried to set a contrary example with his own plays, decrying what he considered Shakespeare's barbarities. Voltaire may have been present at the funeral of Isaac Newton, and met Newton's niece, Catherine Conduitt. In 1727 he published two essays in English, Upon the Civil Wars of France, Extracted from Curious Manuscripts, and Upon Epic Poetry of the European Nations, from Homer Down to Milton.

After two and a half years in exile, Voltaire returned to France, and after a few months living in Dieppe, the authorities permitted him to return to Paris. At a dinner, French mathematician Charles Marie de La Condamine proposed buying up the lottery that was organized by the French government to pay off its debts, and Voltaire joined the consortium, earning perhaps a million livres. He invested the money cleverly and on this basis managed to convince the Court of Finances that he was of good conduct and so was able to take control of a capital inheritance from his father that had hitherto been tied up in trust. He was now indisputably rich.

Further success followed, in 1732, with his play Zaïre, which when published in 1733 carried a dedication to Fawkener that praised English liberty and commerce. At this time he published his views on British attitudes toward government, literature, religion and science in a collection of essays in letter form entitled Letters Concerning the English Nation (London, 1733). In 1734, they were published in French as Lettres philosophiques in Rouen. Because the publisher released the book without the approval of the royal censor and Voltaire regarded the British constitutional monarchy as more developed and more respectful of human rights (particularly religious tolerance) than its French counterpart, the French publication of Letters caused a huge scandal; the book was publicly burnt and banned, and Voltaire was forced again to flee Paris.

In the frontispiece to Voltaire's book on Newton's philosophy,
Émilie du Châtelet appears as Voltaire's muse,
reflecting Newton's heavenly insights down to Voltaire

Château de Cirey

In 1733, Voltaire met Émilie du Châtelet, a married mother of three who was 12 years his junior and with whom he was to have an affair for 16 years. To avoid arrest after the publication of Letters, Voltaire took refuge at her husband's château at Cirey-sur-Blaise, on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine. Voltaire paid for the building's renovation, and Émilie's husband, the Marquis du Châtelet, sometimes stayed at the château with his wife and her lover. The relationship had a significant intellectual element. Voltaire and the Marquise collected over 21,000 books, an enormous number for the time. Together, they studied these books and performed experiments in the natural sciences at Cirey, which included an attempt to determine the nature of fire.

Having learned from his previous brushes with the authorities, Voltaire began his habit of keeping out of personal harm's way and denying any awkward responsibility. He continued to write plays, such as Mérope (or La Mérope française) and began his long research into science and history. Again, a main source of inspiration for Voltaire were the years of his British exile, during which he had been strongly influenced by the works of Sir Isaac Newton. Voltaire strongly believed in Newton's theories; he performed experiments in optics at Cirey,[58] and was one of the sources for the famous story of Newton and the apple falling from the tree, which he had learned from Newton's niece in London and first mentioned in his Letters.

In the fall of 1735, Voltaire was visited by Francesco Algarotti, who was preparing a book about Newton in Italian. Partly inspired by the visit, the Marquise translated Newton's Latin Principia into French in full, and it remained the definitive French translation into the 21st century. Both she and Voltaire were also curious about the philosophies of Gottfried Leibniz, a contemporary and rival of Newton. While Voltaire remained a firm Newtonian, the Marquise adopted certain aspects of Leibniz's arguments against Newton. Voltaire's own book Eléments de la philosophie de Newton (Elements of Newton's Philosophy) made Newton accessible and understandable to a far greater public, and the Marquise wrote a celebratory review in the Journal des savants. Voltaire's work was instrumental in bringing about general acceptance of Newton's optical and gravitational theories in France.

Voltaire and the Marquise also studied history, particularly those persons who had contributed to civilization. Voltaire's second essay in English had been "Essay upon the Civil Wars in France". It was followed by La Henriade, an epic poem on the French King Henri IV, glorifying his attempt to end the Catholic-Protestant massacres with the Edict of Nantes, and by a historical novel on King Charles XII of Sweden. These, along with his Letters on the English mark the beginning of Voltaire's open criticism of intolerance and established religions.[citation needed] Voltaire and the Marquise also explored philosophy, particularly metaphysics, the branch of philosophy that deals with being and with what lies beyond the material realm, such as whether or not there is a God and whether people have souls. Voltaire and the Marquise analysed the Bible and concluded that much of its content was dubious. Voltaire's critical views on religion are reflected in his belief in separation of church and state and religious freedom, ideas that he had formed after his stay in England.

In August 1736, Frederick the Great, then Crown Prince of Prussia and a great admirer of Voltaire, initiated a correspondence with him. That December, Voltaire moved to Holland for two months and became acquainted with the scientists Herman Boerhaave and 's Gravesande. From mid-1739 to mid-1740 Voltaire lived largely in Brussels, at first with the Marquise, who was unsuccessfully attempting to pursue a 60-year-old family legal case regarding the ownership of two estates in Limburg. In July 1740, he traveled to the Hague on behalf of Frederick in an attempt to dissuade a dubious publisher, van Duren, from printing without permission Frederick's Anti-Machiavel. In September Voltaire and Frederick (now King) met for the first time in Moyland Castle near Cleves and in November Voltaire was Frederick's guest in Berlin for two weeks; in September 1742 they met in Aix-la-Chapelle. Voltaire was sent to Frederick's court in 1743 by the French government as an envoy and spy to gauge Frederick's military intentions in the War of the Austrian Succession.

Though deeply committed to the Marquise, Voltaire by 1744 found life at the château confining. On a visit to Paris that year, he found a new love-his niece. At first, his attraction to Marie Louise Mignot was clearly sexual, as evidenced by his letters to her (only discovered in 1957). Much later, they lived together, perhaps platonically, and remained together until Voltaire's death. Meanwhile, the Marquise also took a lover, the Marquis de Saint-Lambert.

Die Tafelrunde by Adolph von Menzel. Guests of Frederick 

the Great at Sanssouci, including members of the Prussian 

Academy of Sciences and Voltaire (third from left)

Prussia

After the death of the Marquise in childbirth in September 1749, Voltaire briefly returned to Paris and in mid-1750 moved to Prussia to the court of Frederick the Great. The Prussian king (with the permission of Louis XV) made him a chamberlain in his household, appointed him to the Order of Merit, and gave him a salary of 20,000 French livres a year. He had rooms at Sanssouci and Charlottenburg Palace. Though life went well at first-in 1751 he completed Micromégas, a piece of science fiction involving ambassadors from another planet witnessing the follies of humankind-his relationship with Frederick the Great began to deteriorate after he was accused of theft and forgery by a Jewish financier, Abraham Hirschel, who had invested in Saxon government bonds, on behalf of Voltaire, at a time when Frederick was involved in sensitive diplomatic negotiations with Saxony.

He encountered other difficulties: an argument with Maupertuis, the president of the Berlin Academy of Science and a former rival for Émilie's affections, provoked Voltaire's Diatribe du docteur Akakia ("Diatribe of Doctor Akakia"), which satirized some of Maupertuis's theories and his abuse of power in his persecutions of a mutual acquaintance, Johann Samuel König. This greatly angered Frederick, who ordered all copies of the document burned. On 1 January 1752, Voltaire offered to resign as chamberlain and return his insignia of the Order of Merit; at first, Frederick refused until eventually permitting Voltaire to leave in March. On a slow journey back to France, Voltaire stayed at Leipzig and Gotha for a month each, and Kassel for two weeks, arriving at Frankfurt on 31 May. The following morning, he was detained at the inn where he was staying by Frederick's agents, who held him in the city for over three weeks while they, Voltaire and Frederick argued by letter over the return of a satirical book of poetry Frederick had lent to Voltaire. Marie Louise joined him on 9 June. She and her uncle only left Frankfurt in July after she had defended herself from the unwanted advances of one of Frederick's agents and Voltaire's luggage had been ransacked and valuable items taken.

Voltaire's attempts to vilify Frederick for his agents' actions at Frankfurt were largely unsuccessful. Voltaire responded by composing Mémoires pour Servir à la Vie de M. de Voltaire, a work published after his death that paints a largely negative picture of his time spent with Frederick. However, the correspondence between them continued, and though they never met in person again, after the Seven Years' War they largely reconciled.

Voltaire's château at Ferney, France

Geneva and Ferney

Voltaire's slow progress toward Paris continued through Mainz, Mannheim, Strasbourg, and Colmar, but in January 1754 Louis XV banned him from Paris,[85] so instead he turned for Geneva, near which he bought a large estate (Les Délices) in early 1755. Though he was received openly at first, the law in Geneva, which banned theatrical performances, and the publication of The Maid of Orleans against his will soured his relationship with Calvinist Genevans. In late 1758, he bought an even larger estate at Ferney, on the French side of the Franco-Swiss border. Early the following year, Voltaire completed and published Candide, ou l'Optimisme (Candide, or Optimism). This satire on Leibniz's philosophy of optimistic determinism remains the work for which Voltaire is perhaps best known. He would stay in Ferney for most of the remaining 20 years of his life, frequently entertaining distinguished guests, such as James Boswell, Adam Smith, Giacomo Casanova, and Edward Gibbon. In 1764, he published one of his best-known philosophical works, the Dictionnaire philosophique, a series of articles mainly on Christian history and dogmas, a few of which were originally written in Berlin.

From 1762, he began to champion unjustly persecuted people, the case of Huguenot merchant Jean Calas being the most celebrated. He had been tortured to death in 1763, supposedly because he had murdered his eldest son for wanting to convert to Catholicism. His possessions were confiscated and his two daughters were taken from his widow and were forced into Catholic convents. Voltaire, seeing this as a clear case of religious persecution, managed to overturn the conviction in 1765.

Voltaire was initiated into Freemasonry the month before his death. On 4 April 1778 Voltaire accompanied his close friend Benjamin Franklin into La Loge des Neuf Sœurs or Les Neuf Sœurs in Paris, France and became an Entered Apprentice Freemason. "Benjamin Franklin … urged Voltaire to become a freemason; and Voltaire agreed, perhaps only to please Franklin."

House in Paris where Voltaire died

Death and burial

In February 1778, Voltaire returned for the first time in over 25 years to Paris, among other reasons to see the opening of his latest tragedy, Irene. The five-day journey was too much for the 83-year-old, and he believed he was about to die on 28 February, writing "I die adoring God, loving my friends, not hating my enemies, and detesting superstition." However, he recovered, and in March saw a performance of Irene, where he was treated by the audience as a returning hero.

He soon became ill again and died on 30 May 1778. The accounts of his deathbed have been numerous and varying, and it has not been possible to establish the details of what precisely occurred. His enemies related that he repented and accepted the last rites given by a Catholic priest, or that he died under great torment, while his adherents told how he was defiant to his last breath. According to one story of his last words, his response to a priest at his deathbed urging him to renounce Satan was "Now is not the time for making new enemies." However, this appears to have originated from a joke first published in a Massachusetts newspaper in 1856, and was only attributed to Voltaire in the 1970s.

Because of his well-known criticism of the Church, which he had refused to retract before his death, Voltaire was denied a Christian burial in Paris, but friends and relations managed to bury his body secretly at the Abbey of Scellières in Champagne, where Marie Louise's brother was abbé. His heart and brain were embalmed separately.

On 11 July 1791, he was enshrined in the Panthéon, after the National Assembly of France, which regarded him as a forerunner of the French Revolution, had his remains brought back to Paris. It is estimated that a million people attended the procession, which stretched throughout Paris. There was an elaborate ceremony, complete with an orchestra, and the music included a piece that André Grétry had composed especially for the event, which included a part for the "tuba curva" (an instrument that originated in Roman times as the cornu but had recently been revived under a new name.

Voltaire's tomb in the Paris Panthéon

Writings

History

Voltaire had an enormous influence on the development of historiography through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. Guillaume de Syon argues:

Voltaire recast historiography in both factual and analytical terms. Not only did he reject traditional biographies and accounts that claim the work of supernatural forces, but he went so far as to suggest that earlier historiography was rife with falsified evidence and required new investigations at the source. Such an outlook was not unique in that the scientific spirit that 18th-century intellectuals perceived themselves as invested with. A rationalistic approach was key to rewriting history.

Voltaire's best-known histories are The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and his Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations (1756). He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history and achievements in the arts and sciences. The Essay on Customs traced the progress of world civilization in a universal context, thereby rejecting both nationalism and the traditional Christian frame of reference. Influenced by Bossuet's Discourse on the Universal History (1682), he was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture and political history. He treated Europe as a whole, rather than a collection of nations. He was the first to emphasize the debt of medieval culture to Middle Eastern civilization, but otherwise was weak on the Middle Ages. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress.

Voltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on "History" in Diderot's Encyclopédie: "One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population." Voltaire's histories imposed the values of the Enlightenment on the past, but at the same time he helped free historiography from antiquarianism, Eurocentrism, religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare. Yale professor Peter Gay says Voltaire wrote "very good history", citing his "scrupulous concern for truths", "careful sifting of evidence", "intelligent selection of what is important", "keen sense of drama", and "grasp of the fact that a whole civilization is a unit of study".

Frontispiece and first page of an early English translation
by T. Smollett et al. of Voltaire's Candide, 1762

Poetry

From an early age, Voltaire displayed a talent for writing verse and his first published work was poetry. He wrote two book-long epic poems, including the first ever written in French, the Henriade, and later, The Maid of Orleans, besides many other smaller pieces.

The Henriade was written in imitation of Virgil, using the alexandrine couplet reformed and rendered monotonous for modern readers but it was a huge success in the 18th and early 19th century, with sixty-five editions and translations into several languages. The epic poem transformed French King Henry IV into a national hero for his attempts at instituting tolerance with his Edict of Nantes. La Pucelle, on the other hand, is a burlesque on the legend of Joan of Arc. Voltaire's minor poems are generally considered superior to either of these two works.

Prose

Many of Voltaire's prose works and romances, usually composed as pamphlets, were written as polemics. Candide attacks the passivity inspired by Leibniz's philosophy of optimism; L'Homme aux quarante ecus (The Man of Forty Pieces of Silver), certain social and political ways of the time; Zadig and others, the received forms of moral and metaphysical orthodoxy; and some were written to deride the Bible. In these works, Voltaire's ironic style, free of exaggeration, is apparent, particularly the restraint and simplicity of the verbal treatment. Candide in particular is the best example of his style. Voltaire also has, in common with Jonathan Swift, the distinction of paving the way for science fiction's philosophical irony, particularly in his Micromégas and the vignette Plato's Dream (1756).

In general, his criticism and miscellaneous writing show a similar style to Voltaire's other works. Almost all of his more substantive works, whether in verse or prose, are preceded by prefaces of one sort or another, which are models of his caustic yet conversational tone. In a vast variety of nondescript pamphlets and writings, he displays his skills at journalism. In pure literary criticism his principal work is the Commentaire sur Corneille, although he wrote many more similar works-sometimes (as in his Life and Notices of Molière) independently and sometimes as part of his Siècles.

Voltaire's works, especially his private letters, frequently contain the word "l'infâme" and the expression "écrasez l'infâme", or "crush the infamous". The phrase refers to abuses of the people by royalty and the clergy that Voltaire saw around him, and the superstition and intolerance that the clergy bred within the people. He had felt these effects in his own exiles, the burnings of his books and those of many others, and in the hideous sufferings of Jean Calas and François-Jean de la Barre. He stated in one of his most famous quotes that "Superstition sets the whole world in flames; philosophy quenches them."

The most oft-cited Voltaire quotation is apocryphal. He is incorrectly credited with writing, "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it." These were not his words, but rather those of Evelyn Beatrice Hall, written under the pseudonym S. G. Tallentyre in her 1906 biographical book The Friends of Voltaire. Hall intended to summarize in her own words Voltaire's attitude towards Claude Adrien Helvétius and his controversial book De l'esprit, but her first-person expression was mistaken for an actual quotation from Voltaire. Her interpretation does capture the spirit of Voltaire's attitude towards Helvetius; it had been said Hall's summary was inspired by a quotation found in a 1770 Voltaire letter to an Abbot le Riche, in which he was reported to have said, "I detest what you write, but I would give my life to make it possible for you to continue to write." Nevertheless, scholars believe there must have again been misinterpretation, as the letter does not seem to contain any such quote.

Voltaire's first major philosophical work in his battle against "l'infâme" was the Traité sur la tolérance (Treatise on Tolerance), exposing the Calas affair, along with the tolerance exercised by other faiths and in other eras (for example, by the Jews, the Romans, the Greeks and the Chinese). Then, in his Dictionnaire philosophique, containing such articles as "Abraham", "Genesis", "Church Council", he wrote about what he perceived as the human origins of dogmas and beliefs, as well as inhuman behavior of religious and political institutions in shedding blood over the quarrels of competing sects. Amongst other targets, Voltaire criticized France's colonial policy in North America, dismissing the vast territory of New France as "a few acres of snow" ("quelques arpents de neige").

Voltaire at Frederick the Great's Sanssouci, by Pierre Charles Baquoy

Letters

Voltaire also engaged in an enormous amount of private correspondence during his life, totalling over 20,000 letters. Theodore Besterman's collected edition of these letters, completed only in 1964, fills 102 volumes. One historian called the letters "a feast not only of wit and eloquence but of warm friendship, humane feeling, and incisive thought."

In Voltaire's correspondence with Catherine the Great he derided democracy. He wrote, "Almost nothing great has ever been done in the world except by the genius and firmness of a single man combating the prejudices of the multitude."

Religious views

Like other key Enlightenment thinkers, Voltaire was a deist, expressing the idea: "What is faith? Is it to believe that which is evident? No. It is perfectly evident to my mind that there exists a necessary, eternal, supreme, and intelligent being. This is no matter of faith, but of reason." Voltaire held mixed views of the Abrahamic religions but had a favourable view of Hinduism.

In a 1763 essay, Voltaire supported the toleration of other religions and ethnicities: "It does not require great art, or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God?"

In one of his many denunciations of priests of every religious sect, Voltaire describes them as those who "rise from an incestuous bed, manufacture a hundred versions of God, then eat and drink God, then piss and shit God."

Christianity

In a letter to Frederick II, King of Prussia, dated 5 January 1767, he wrote about Christianity :

La nôtre [religion] est sans contredit la plus ridicule, la plus absurde, et la plus sanguinaire qui ait jamais infecté le monde.

"Our [religion] is assuredly the most ridiculous, the most absurd and the most bloody religion which has ever infected this world. Your Majesty will do the human race an eternal service by extirpating this infamous superstition, I do not say among the rabble, who are not worthy of being enlightened and who are apt for every yoke; I say among honest people, among men who think, among those who wish to think. … My one regret in dying is that I cannot aid you in this noble enterprise, the finest and most respectable which the human mind can point out.."

In La bible enfin expliquée, he expressed the following attitude to lay reading of the Bible :

It is characteristic of fanatics who read the holy scriptures to tell themselves: God killed, so I must kill; Abraham lied, Jacob deceived, Rachel stole: so I must steal, deceive, lie. But, wretch, you are neither Rachel, nor Jacob, nor Abraham, nor God; you are just a mad fool, and the popes who forbade the reading of the Bible were extremely wise.

Voltaire at 70; engraving from 1843 

edition of his Philosophical Dictionary

Voltaire's opinion of the Christian Bible was mixed. Although influenced by Socinian works such as the Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum, Voltaire's skeptical attitude to the Bible separated him from Unitarian theologians like Fausto Sozzini or even Biblical-political writers like John Locke. His statements on religion also brought down on him the fury of the Jesuits and in particular Claude-Adrien Nonnotte. This did not hinder his religious practice, though it did win for him a bad reputation in certain religious circles. The deeply Christian Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote to his father the year of Voltaire's death, saying, "The arch-scoundrel Voltaire has finally kicked the bucket ...". Voltaire was later deemed to influence Edward Gibbon in claiming that Christianity was a contributor to the fall of the Roman Empire, in his book The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

As Christianity advances, disasters befall the [Roman] empire-arts, science, literature, decay-barbarism and all its revolting concomitants are made to seem the consequences of its decisive triumph-and the unwary reader is conducted, with matchless dexterity, to the desired conclusion-the abominable Manicheism of Candide, and, in fact, of all the productions of Voltaire's historic school-viz., "that instead of being a merciful, ameliorating, and benignant visitation, the religion of Christians would rather seem to be a scourge sent on man by the author of all evil."

However, Voltaire also acknowledged the self-sacrifice of Christians. He wrote: "Perhaps there is nothing greater on earth than the sacrifice of youth and beauty, often of high birth, made by the gentle sex in order to work in hospitals for the relief of human misery, the sight of which is so revolting to our delicacy. Peoples separated from the Roman religion have imitated but imperfectly so generous a charity." Yet "His hatred of religion increased with the passage of years. The attack, launched at first against clericalism and theocracy, ended in a furious assault upon Holy Scripture, the dogmas of the Church, and even upon the person of Jesus Christ Himself, who was depicted now as a degenerate". The reasoning of which may be summed up in his well-known quote, "Those who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities".

François-Marie Arouet (21 tháng 11 năm 1694 - 30 tháng 5 năm 1778), nổi tiếng qua bút hiệu Voltaire, là một đại văn hào, tác giả, bình luận gia, nhà thần luận và triết gia người Pháp. Không những thế, ông cũng viết thơ.

Voltaire hay nói bỡn nhưng rất nhạy bén khi phê bình hay tranh luận. Ông luôn phấn đấu phát huy quyền làm người, bảo vệ quyền tự do cá nhân, tự do tôn giáo và quyền được phán xử công minh. Ông thường công khai phát biểu đòi cải cách những bất công trong xã hội mặc dầu lúc bấy giờ triều đình Pháp rất khe khắt với những người chống đối. Qua những bài bình luận có tính châm biếm, Voltaire thường chỉ trích Giáo hội và Nhà nước Pháp thời đó. Phần lớn cuộc đời ông sống trong cảnh đày ải.

Ông được xem như một nhân vật có tiếng và quan trọng lúc sinh thời. Cả thế giới đều biết đến tình bạn giữa ông và nhà vua Friedrich II Đại Đế nước Phổ - một vị Đại Danh tướng thời đó. Nhà vua Friedrich II Đại Đế là một học trò Hoàng gia của ông.Tiểu sử

Voltaire sinh năm 1694 tại thủ đô Paris ra trong một gia đình cha là một quan chức thuế và mẹ là quý tộc dòng dõi. Ông được giáo dục bởi các giáo sĩ dòng Tên, được học tiếng Hy Lạp và tiếng La Tinh. Sau này ông còn thành thạo các tiếng Anh, Ý và Tây Ban Nha. Ông ban đầu làm thư ký rồi sau chuyển hẳn sang nghiệp viết. Ông chủ yếu viết văn thơ chỉ trích xã hội đương thời và do vậy bị đày sang Anh Quốc, nơi ông chịu nhiều ảnh hưởng và sau ba năm đi đày ông đã viết Lettres philosophiques (Những lá thư triết học về nước Anh).

Về Pháp ông ở tại lâu đài Château de Cirey tại mạn biên giới giữa vùng Champagne và Lorraine. Chính nơi đây ông bắt đầu quan hệ với Émile của Châtelet, vợ của người chủ lâu đài. Voltaire cùng bà nữ hầu tước này đã sưu tập nhiều sách vở tài liệu và cùng nhau nghiên cứu chúng lại cùng nhau làm thí nghiệm "khoa học tự nhiên" ngay tại lâu đài. Bên cạnh say mê khoa học tự nhiên và là tín đồ của Newton ông cũng nghiên cứu sử học và viết Essay upon the Civil Wars in France (Luận văn về Nội chiến ở Pháp) bằng tiếng Anh. Ông cũng viết về vua Louis XIV, miêu tả về sự lớn mạnh của nền quân sự nước Pháp thời ấy. Với tiểu sử vua Thụy Điển là Karl XII ông bắt đầu quan điểm phản đối tôn giáo của mình. Tuyệt tác này bị Chính phủ Pháp căm ghét, do ông tỏ ra khiếm nhã khi miêu tả về kẻ thù của vua Karl XII là August II, Tuyển hầu tước xứ Sachsen kiêm vua Ba Lan (một trong những đứa con riêng của vua August II là danh tướng Pháp Maurice de Saxe). Ông rất ngưỡng mộ Quốc vương Karl XII, và ấn tượng sâu sắc trong chiến thắng lừng lẫy của ông vua này trước Nga hoàng Pyotr Đại Đế trong trận Narva tại Estonia (1700). Ông cùng bà nữ hầu tước còn cùng nhau nghiên cứu triết học, nhất là siêu hình học. Ông cùng nghiên cứu Kinh thánh và cho rằng cần phân tách nhà thờ ra khỏi nhà nước. Lúc này, vua Friedrich Wilhelm I trị vì nước Phổ, và Hoàng thái tử nước ấy là Friedrich đã làm quen với thiên tài văn học Voltaire. Thái tử Friedrich cũng mê say đọc các tác phẩm của ông.[10] Hai người lần đầu tiên trao đổi thư từ vào năm 1736, Voltaire đã viết thư ca ngợi Thái tử Friedrich sẽ là một vị Quân vương triết học sáng suốt.

Bữa ăn của Voltaire, vua Phổ Friedrich II
và những thành viên viện Hàn lâm Khoa học Berlin.

Vào năm 1740, khi mới 28 tuổi, Hoàng thái tử Friedrich lên nối ngôi, tức là vua Friedrich II Đại Đế của Vương quốc Phổ. Voltaire có viết thơ ca ngợi cuộc đăng quang của vị tân vương sáng suốt. Tuy vị vua - triết gia tiến hành những cải cách tiến bộ đầu tiên, những bạn hữu của nhà vua như Voltaire đều sớm nhận ra rằng nhà vua còn có mối quan tâm khác ngoài triết học. Nhà vua nhanh chóng xua quân tinh nhuệ đánh chiếm tỉnh Silesia giàu mạnh của Đế quốc Áo láng giềng, và giành thắng lợi. Từ năm 1741 cho đến năm 1745 có hai cuộc chiến tranh Silesia đầu tiên, và nhà vua vẫn trao đổi thư từ với Voltaire.

Sau khi Nữ Hầu tước Émile của Châtelet mất, Voltaire sang Phổ chung sống với nhà vua Friedrich II Đại đế[15] - còn gọi là Friedrich Độc đáo. Nay, trong thư gửi cho bạn hữu của ông tại kinh đô Paris, Voltaire miêu tả thành phố Potsdam là miền cực lạc của triết học, và ca tụng vị vua vĩ đại. Ở Hoàng cung khi ấy có một "căn phòng Voltaire". Mặc dù cuộc sống vương giả nhưng ông vẫn giữ thói chỉ trích của mình và với tác phẩm Diatribe du docteur Akakia (Chỉ trích Tiến sĩ Akkakia; tên đầy đủ Histoire du Docteur Akakia et du Natif de St Malo) mà ông phê phán vị Viện trưởng Viện Hàn lâm Berlin là Maupertius, Voltaire đã khiến vua Friedrich II Đại Đế nổi giận. Ông quay về Pháp nhưng vua Louis XV của Pháp cấm ông trở về thủ đô Paris nên ông quay sang Genève. Tuy ban đầu được đón chào nhưng ông lại viết luận văn chỉ trích triết học của Gottfried Leibniz qua tác phẩm Candide, ou l'Optimisme (Ngay thẳng, hay lạc quan; 1759) và ông lại rời thành phố.

Sau bất hòa vào năm 1753, nhà vua Friedrich II Đại Đế do ngưỡng mộ thiên tài của ông nên đã trao đổi thư từ với ông, lập lại tình bạn. Vào năm 1756, cuộc Chiến tranh Bảy năm bùng nổ, quân Phổ bị quân Áo đập tan tác trong trận Kolín (1757). Nhưng nhà vua nước Phổ sẵn sàng thà chết còn hơn nhượng tỉnh Silesia cho giặc, và Voltaire cho rằng, năm xưa, một tiên vương của Vương triều Brandenburg - Phổ từng bị mất đất đai chiếm được, nhưng vẫn giữ mãi vinh dự lớn lao, và nay, nhà vua vẫn luôn luôn có thể "đóng một vai trò lớn lao ở châu Âu". Nhà vua rất thích lời khuyên này của ông. Vào năm 1758, ông cũng trao đổi thư từ với nhà vua, để tìm hiểu những đức tính cao đẹp của nhà vua. Tương tự vào năm 1760, nhà vua nước Phổ gửi thư cho ông. Đến năm 1762, cuối cùng thì nhà vua đã đại phá quân Áo trong trận đánh tại Freiberg và ký kết Hiệp định Hubertusburg vào năm 1763, giữ vững được toàn bộ đất nước Phổ. Dù có vài vụ chia rẽ đầy tai tiếng, tình bạn giữa hai vĩ nhân này vẫn được giữ vững cho đến khi Voltaire qua đời vào năm 1778. Mở đầu từ thập niên 1730, tình bạn thân thiết của họ, với một loạt thư từ được trao đổi giữa hai bên, kéo dài đến hơn 40 năm trời. Đây là một tình bạn nổi tiếng giữa vị vua nước Phổ và một trong những ngôi sao sáng chói nhất của trào lưu Khai sáng trong nhiều năm.

Sinh thời, Voltaire không những có tình bạn với Quốc vương Friedrich II Đại Đế nước Phổ, mà cũng trao đổi thư từ với Nữ hoàng nước Nga là Ekaterina II Đại Đế. Nữ hoàng thán phục thiên tài văn học và tầm nhìn xa trông rộng của ông, và ông cũng gọi Nữ hoàng là "Nữ vương Semiramis của phương Bắc" (Semiramis là một vị Nữ vương huyền thoại của xứ Assyria xưa). Tuy nhiên, ông không hề nói thế trong những lá thư gửi cho Nữ hoàng Ekaterina II Đại Đế, vì ông có viết vở bi kịch "Sémiramis" kể về một vị Nữ vương giết chồng cướp ngôi. Trong khi Nữ hoàng nước Nga đã soán ngôi của chồng của Nga hoàng Pyotr III vào năm 1762. Ông còn ủng hộ Nữ hoàng đánh đuổi người Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ hung bạo ra khỏi châu Âu và chia cắt Ba Lan vào thập niên 1770. Có lần ông còn gọi Nữ hoàng là Tomyris, theo tên một vị Nữ vương xứ Scythia đã đánh tan tác đại quân Ba Tư của Hoàng đế Cyrus Đại Đế. Ông cũng trao đổi thư từ với nhà ngoại giao người Anh là William Hamilton vào năm 1773.

Vắn tắt về tác phẩm

Voltaire để lại một di sản các tác phẩm đồ sộ bao gồm tiểu thuyết, kịch, thơ, luận văn và các công trình nghiên cứu khoa học và sử học. Ông còn viết nhiều sách, rất nhiều tờ rơi và trên 20.000 thư từ trao đổi. Trong bản anh hùng ca "Henriade" của ông, Voltaire ca ngợi những đức độ của một vị Quân vương sáng suốt, như sống giản dị, chăm lo phát triển kinh tế hay bảo trợ khoa học và nghệ thuật. Vua Phổ Friedrich II Đại Đế đã hăng hái noi theo những lời dạy này. Trong bản anh hùng ca này, ông ca tụng công đức của vua Henri IV năm xưa.

Tôn giáo

Qua các tác phẩm Voltaire thể hiện quan điểm rằng không cần đức tin để tin vào Chúa. Ông tin vào Chúa nhưng là niềm tin lý tính. Ông cũng phản đối đạo Ki-tô quyết liệt nhưng không nhất quán. Một mặt ông cho rằng Giê-su không tồn tại và các sách Phúc âm là nguỵ tạo nên chứa đầy mâu thuẫn nhưng mặt khác ông lại cho rằng cũng chính công đồng đó đã gìn giữ nguyên bản mà không thay đổi gì để giải thích cho những mâu thuẫn trong các sách Phúc âm. Ông cũng gọi người da đen là động vật (trong Essai sur les mœurs) và thấp kém so với con người cả về mặt thể chất và tinh thần. Ông cũng viét nhiều về các chủng thổ dân khác nhau và có quan điểm bài Do thái.

Triết học

Tác phẩm lớn nhất của ông để lại là Dictionnaire philosophique (Từ điển Triết học) tập hợp nhiều bài viết riêng của ông và các bài ông viết trong Encyclopédie (Bách khoa thư) của Diderot. Trong đó ông phản bác thể chế chính trị đương thời của Pháp, nhà thờ Công giáo, Kinh Thánh và thể hiện văn phong, tính cách riêng của mình, Voltaire. Qua đó ông nhấn mạnh vai trò của tôn giáo lý tưởng là giáo dục đạo đức chứ không phải giáo điều.

Ông đồng ý với luận điểm của Isaac Newton và John Locke. Ông cũng phản bác chế độ thuộc địa của Pháp ở Bắc Mỹ.

Ảnh hưởng

Nhà văn Voltaire xem giai cấp tư sản Pháp quá nhỏ bế và yếu ớt, giai cấp quý tộc thì tham nhũng và ăn bám, còn người dân thường thì dốt nát và mê tín, và nhà thờ thì giúp thêm cho các nhà cách mạng bằng thuế thập phân. Do ông xem phần lớn con người là những kẻ đểu giả và ngu dốt, ông bỉ bác nguồn gốc của con người, khác với nhà văn Rousseau mong muốn đưa con người trở về với tự nhiên.

Voltaire cũng không tin tưởng ở chế độ dân chủ mà ông xem là chỉ tuyên truyền những tôn sùng của quần chúng. Theo ông chỉ tin những vị vua theo chủ nghĩa Khai sáng chuyên chế với sự hỗ trợ của các nhà triết học như ông mới có thể dẫn tới sự thay đổi vì chỉ với những tính toán lợi ích hợp lý của nhà vua mới mang lại quyền lợi và thịnh vượng cho vương quốc và thần dân. Trong thư gửi Nữ hoàng Ekaterina II Đại Đế nước Nga và vua Friedrich II Đại Đế nước Phổ ông nhấn mạnh đến vai trò của quân đội và sử dụng vũ lực để "mang lại trật tự" như ông viết ủng hộ việc chia tách Vương quốc Ba Lan và Đại Công quốc Litva. Không những thế, ông cũng kêu gọi vua Friedrich II Đại Đế phát binh đánh người Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ bạo ngược, nhưng vua từ chối. Số là vua đã phải hứng chịu cuộc Chiến tranh Bảy năm tàn khốc, nay chiến tranh kết thúc, vua gửi thư cho Voltaire:

“Hãy để cho chúng ta được sống, và làm ơn để người khác được sống.”

- Friedrich II Đại Đế

Và khi Voltaire ca ngợi vua Karl XII "lên đến mây xanh" dù ông "chẳng biết tí tẹo gì" về quân sự, vua Friedrich II Đại Đế cũng thể hiện trải nghiệm của mình sau chiến tranh qua việc không ngưỡng mộ vua Karl XII cho lắm. Nhưng Voltaire cũng phản đối việc sử dụng vũ lực để giải quyết các vấn đề tranh chấp như trong Dictionnaire philosophique ông xem chiến tranh là "cỗ máy địa ngục" và người sử dụng chúng là "những kẻ giết người ngu ngốc". Voltaire còn được nhớ đến như một người tranh đấu cho quyền tự do cá nhân, tự do tôn giáo trong đó có quyền được xét xử công bằng và vạch rõ sự giả dối và không công bằng của chế độ ba đẳng cấp.

Voltaire sống hai mươi năm cuối đời ở Ferney và mất ở Paris. Những lời nói cuối cùng của ông là: "Vì Thiên Chúa, xin để cho tôi chết trong bình yên." Nay Ferney được đặt theo tên ông là Ferney-Voltaire. Lâu đài ông ở giờ là bảo tàng L'Auberge de l'Europe còn toàn bộ thư viện của ông vẫn được giữ nguyên tại bảo tàng quốc gia Nga tại Sankt-Peterburg. Đại thi hào người Đức là Johann Wolfgang von Goethe đã gọi ông là "nhà văn xuất sắc nhất mọi thời đại". Không những thế, ông cũng được đánh giá là một trong những thiên tài sử học lỗi lạc nhất.